1
sn (1:1) The name Joel means in Hebrew "the LORD is God." There are a dozen or so individuals with this name in the OT.
2sn (1:2) Elders here refers not necessarily to men advanced in years, but to leaders within the community.
3tn (1:2) Heb "fathers."
4tn (1:3) Heb "sons" (several times in this verse).
5sn (1:3) The circumstances that precipitated the book of Joel had to do with a locust invasion in Palestine that was of unprecedented proportions. The locusts had devastated the country's agrarian economy, with the unwelcome consequences extending to every important aspect of commercial, religious, and national life. To further complicate matters, a severe draught had exhausted water supplies, causing life-threatening shortages for both animal and human life.
6tn (1:4) The four Hebrew terms used in this verse are of uncertain meaning. English translations have shown a great deal of variation in dealing with these terms: (1) For <z´G´ (G´z´<) KJV has "palmerworm," NEB "locust," NAB "cutter", NASB "gnawing locust," NIV "locust swarm," NKJV "chewing locust," NRSV, NLT "cutting locust(s)"; (2) for hB#r=a^ (a^rB#h) KJV has "locust," NEB "swarm," NAB "locust swarm," NASB, NKJV, NRSV, NLT "swarming locust(s)," NIV "great locusts,"; (3) for ql#y\ (y\l#q) KJV has "cankerworm," NEB "hopper," NAB "grasshopper," NASB "creeping locust," NIV "young locusts," NKJV "crawling locust," NRSV, NLT "hopping locust(s)"; (4) for lys!j* (j*s!l) KJV has "caterpillar," NEB "grub," NAB "devourer," NASB, NLT "stripping locust(s)," NIV "other locusts," NKJV "consuming locust," NRSV "destroying locust." It is debated whether the Hebrew terms describe different species of locusts or similar insects or different developmental stages of the same species, or are virtual synonyms. While the last seems more likely, given the uncertainty over the exact meaning of these terms the present translation has employed transliterated Hebrew terms in combination with the word "locust."
sn (1:4) Four different words for "locust" are used in this verse. Whether these words represent different life-stages of the locusts, or whether virtual synonyms are being used to underscore the severity of damage caused by the relentless waves of locust invasion, is not entirely certain. The latter seems more likely. Many interpreters have understood the locust plagues described here to be symbolic of invading armies that will devastate the land, but the symbolism could also work the other way, with real plagues of locusts described in the following verses as an invading army.
7sn (1:5) The word drunkards has a double-edge here. On the one hand, those who were accustomed to drinking too much must now lament the unavailability of wine. On the other hand, there is probably also a hint in the word that the people in general have become religiously inebriated and have been unresponsive to the Lord. They are, as it were, drunkards from a spiritual standpoint.
8sn (1:5) In this verse Joel addresses the first of three groups that are identified as being particularly affected by the locust plague. In v. 5 he describes the effects on the drunkards; in vv. 11-12 he describes the effects on the farmers; and in vv. 13-14 he describes the effects on the priests who offer sacrifices in the temple.
9sn (1:6) As becomes increasingly clear in what follows, this nation is to be understood figuratively. It refers to the locust invasion as viewed from the standpoint of its methodical and destructive advance across the land.
10tn (1:6) Or, "invaded" or "attacked."
11tn (1:6) Heb "its teeth are the teeth."
12tn (1:6) The language is clearly hyperbolic.
13tn (1:7) Both "vines" and "fig trees" are singular in the Hebrew text, but are regarded as collective singulars.
14sn (1:8) The verb is feminine singular, raising a question concerning its intended antecedent. We would expect a plural verb here, the idea being that all the inhabitants of the land should grieve. Perhaps Joel is thinking specifically of the city of Jerusalem, albeit in a representative sense.
15tn (1:8) Or "a young woman." See the note on the phrase "husband-to-be" in the next line.
16sn (1:8) It is possible that the woman is already married and that the reference is to the death of a husband rather than a fiancé (a husband-to-be). Either way, the simile describes an extremely painful and unexpected loss to which the national tragedy that Joel is describing may be compared.
17tn (1:9) Heb "house." So also in vv. 13, 14, 16.
18tn (1:10) The term translated "fields" is a collective singular in the Hebrew text.
19tn (1:10) The Hebrew phrase is suddad sadeh, followed by `abelah `adamah. Here, and often elsewhere in the book, the author uses intentionally alliterative language.
20tn (1:12) This Hebrew word (tappuah) probably refers to the apple tree, but other suggestions that scholars have offered include the apricot or citron or quince.
21tn (1:12) Heb "the sons of man."
22tn (1:15) There is a wordplay in Hebrew here with the word used for "destruction" (sod) and the term used for God (sadday). The exact meaning of "Shaddai" in the OT is somewhat uncertain, although the ancient versions and many modern English versions tend to translate it as "Almighty" (e.g., Greek pantokrator, Latin omnipotens). Here it might be rendered "Destroyer," with the thought being that "destruction will come from the divine Destroyer," although a translation like "divine Destroyer" could potentially be misunderstood as a reference to the destroying angel. The name "Shaddai" (outside Genesis and minus the element "El" ["God"]) is normally used when God is viewed as the sovereign king who blesses/protects or curses/brings judgment. The name appears in the introduction to two of Balaam's oracles (Num 24:4, 16) of blessing upon Israel. Naomi employs the name when accusing the Lord of treating her bitterly by taking the lives of her husband and sons (Ruth 1:20-21). In Ps 68:14; Isa 13:6; and the present passage, Shaddai judges his enemies through warfare, while Ps 91:1 depicts him as the protector of his people. (In Ezek 1:24 and 10:5 the sound of the cherubs' wings is compared to Shaddai's powerful voice. The reference may be to the mighty divine warrior's battle cry which accompanies his angry judgment.)
23tn (1:16) The second half of v. 16 is a continuation of the rhetorical question begun in the first half of the verse, but has been translated as an affirmative statement to make the meaning clear.
24tn (1:17) These two lines of v. 17 comprise only four words in the Hebrew text; three of the four words are found only here in the OT. The translation and meaning are, not surprisingly, rather uncertain. A number of English translations render the word translated "shovels" as "clods," referring to lumps of soil (e.g., NAB, NIV, NRSV).
25sn (1:19) Fire here and in v. 20 is probably not to be understood in a literal sense. The locust plague, accompanied by conditions of extreme draught, has left the countryside looking as though everything has been burned up. So also in Joel 2:3.
26tn (1:20) Or perhaps "cry out to you."
1tn (2:1) The word translated "horn" here is the Hebrew rp*ov (vop*r). The shophar was a wind-instrument made from a cow or ram's horn and used as a military instrument for calling people to attention in the face of danger or as a religious instrument for calling people to occasions of communal celebration. It is typically translated "trumpet" in the English versions.
2tn (2:2) The present translation reads here sehor, "blackness," rather than the MT sahar, "morning." The context calls for a word of darkness; "morning" or "dawn" speaks of approaching light, which does not seem to fit here.
3sn (2:2) Many interpreters understand Joel 2 to describe an invasion of human armies, either in past history (e.g., the Babylonian invasion of Palestine in the sixth century) or in an eschatological setting. More probably, however, the language of this chapter referring to "people" and "armies" is a hypocatastic description of the locusts of chapter one.
4tn (2:3) Heb "them"; the referent (the "people" mentioned in the previous verse) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
5sn (2:4) The notion that a locust's head resembles a miniature replica of a horse's head has often been noticed. For example, the German word for locust (Heupferd, "hay horse") and the Italian word as well (cavaletta, "little horse") are based on this similarity in appearance.
6tn (2:6) Or "nations."
7tn (2:6) The Hebrew word pa'rur is found in the OT only here and in Nah 2:11. Its meaning is very uncertain. Some scholars associate it with a root that signifies "glowing"; hence "all faces gather a glow of dread." Others associate the word with parur, "pot"; hence "all faces gather blackness." Still others take the root to signify "beauty"; hence "all faces gather in their beauty" in the sense of growing pale due to fear. This is the view assumed here.
8tc (2:7) The present translation reads ye´abbetun for the MT ye´abbetun. The verb found in the MT (´bt) means "to take or give a pledge" and does not fit the context. Some scholars emend this word to ye´awwetun, "they make crooked"; others emend to yattun, "they turn aside." It is probably best either to emend to a form of the root ´bt, "to twist" or "pervert," or perhaps to posit a separate root, ´bt II, meaning "to change" or "abandon."
9tn (2:8) Heb "missile" or "javelin." Some scholars instead understand the reference to be to an aqueduct by which the locusts (or armies) entered the city.
10tn (2:10) Heb "before them"; the referent (the "people" mentioned in 2:2) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
11sn (2:12) The figurative language calls for a genuine repentance, and not merely an external ritual that goes through the motions.
12tn (2:14) Heb "turn" or "turn back."
13tn (2:15) See the note on this term in 2:1.
14sn (2:16) OT law allowed for men recently married, or about to be married, to be exempt for a year from certain normally mandatory services, such as military obligation (cf. Deut 20:7; 24:5). However, Joel 2:16 presupposes a time of such urgency that the normal expectations of life must give way to higher requirements.
15sn (2:20) The allusion to the one from the north is best understood as having locusts in view. It is not correct to say that this reference to the enemy as one who came form the north excludes the possibility of a reference to locusts and requires that we understand the reference to be to human armies. Although locust plagues usually approached Palestine from the east or southeast, the severe plague of 1915, for example, came from the northeast.
16sn (2:20) In this context the eastern sea is probably the Dead Sea, and the western sea is the Mediterranean.
17sn (2:20) The foul smell probably refers to the unpleasant odor of decayed masses of dead locusts.
18tn (2:20) The Hebrew text does not have "the LORD." Two interpretations are possible. This clause may refer to the enemy described in the immediately preceding verses, in which case it would have a negative sense: "he has acted in a high-handed manner." Or it may refer to the LORD, in which case it would have a positive sense: "the LORD has acted in a marvelous manner." This is clearly the sense of the same expression in v. 21, where in fact "the LORD" appears as the subject of the verb. It seems best to understand the clause the same way in both verses.
19tn (2:22) Heb "beasts of the field."
20tn (2:23) Heb "sons of Zion."
21tn (2:23) Normally the Hebrew word hammoreh means "the teacher," but here and in Ps 84:7 it seems to refer to the "early rains." Elsewhere the word for "early rains" is yoreh. The phrase used here (hammoreh lisdakah) is similar to the expression "teacher of righteousness" (Heb., moreh hassedeq) found in the Dead Sea Scrolls in reference to a particular charismatic leader, although the Qumran community seems not to have invoked this particular text in support of that notion.
22sn (2:23) For half the year Palestine is generally dry. The rainy season begins with the early rains usually in late October to early December, followed by the latter rains in March and April. Without these rains productive farming would not be possible, as Joel's original readers knew only too well.
23sn (2:25) The plural years suggests that the plague to which Joel refers was not limited to a single season.
24sn (2:25) The same four terms for locust are used here as in 1:4, but in a different order. This fact creates some difficulty for the notion that the four words refer to four distinct stages of locust development.
25sn (3:1) Beginning with 2:28, the verse numbers through 3:21 in the English Bible differ from the verse numbers in the Hebrew text (BHS), with 2:28 ET = 3:1 HT, 2:29 ET = 3:2 HT, 2:30 ET = 3:3 HT, 2:31 ET = 3:4 HT, 2:32 ET = 3:5 HT, 3:1 ET = 4:1 HT, etc., through 3:21 ET = 4:21 HT. Thus Joel in the Hebrew Bible has 4 chapters, the 5 verses of ch. 3 being included at the end of ch. 2 in the English Bible.
26sn (3:1) This passage in the book of Joel plays an important role in the apostolic explanation of the coming of the Spirit on the day of Pentecost as recorded in Acts 2:17-21.
27tn (3:1) Heb "all flesh." As a term for humanity, "flesh" suggests the weakness and fragility of human beings as opposed to God who is "spirit."
28tn (2:30) Or "in the heavens." The same Hebrew term, <y]m^v* (v*m^y]<), may be translated "heavens" or "sky" depending on the context.
29tn (2:31) Heb "to blood," but no doubt this is intended to indicate by metonymy the color of blood rather than the substance itself. The "blood red" color suggests a visual impression here--something that could be caused by fires, volcanic dust, sandstorms, or other atmospheric phenomena.
30tn (2:32) While a number of English translations render this as "saved" (e.g., NIV, NRSV, NLT), this can suggest a "spiritual" salvation rather than the physical deliverance from the cataclysmic events of the day of the Lord described in the context.
1sn (4:1) Joel 3:1 in the English Bible is 4:1 in the Hebrew text (BHS). See also the note at 2:28.
2tc (4:1) The Kethib reads byv!a* (a*v!b, "return the captivity [captives]), while the Qere is bWva* (a*vWb, "restore the fortunes"). Many modern translations follow the Qere reading.
3sn (3:2) There is a play on words here. Jehoshaphat in Hebrew means "the Lord has judged," and the next line in v. 2 further explicates this thought. The location of this valley is uncertain. Cf. v. 12.
4sn (3:3) Joel vividly refers to a situation where innocent human life has no more value than what it will bring to satisfy the common self-indulgences of wicked people who have control over others. Cf. Amos 2:6 and 8:6.
5tn (3:4) Heb "return your recompense."
6tn (3:8) Heb "into the hand of."
7tn (3:8) Heb "the sons of Judah."
8sn (3:8) The Sabaeans were Arabian merchants who were influential along the ancient caravan routes that traveled through Arabia. See also Job 1:15; Isa 43:3; 45:14; Ps 72:10.
9tn (3:9) Heb "draw near and go up."
10tn (3:11) This Hebrew verb is found only here in the OT; its meaning is uncertain. Some scholars prefer to read here ´uru ("arouse") or husu ("hasten").
11tc (3:11) The present translation reads the imperative hiqqabesu rather than the perfect with vav consecutive weniqbasu of the MT.
12tc (3:11) Some commentators prefer to delete the line "Bring down, O LORD, your warriors," understanding it to be a later addition. But this is unnecessary. Contrary to what some have suggested, a prayer for the LORD's intervention is not out of place here.
13tn (3:13) Heb "go down" or "tread." The Hebrew term redu may either be from yarad ("to go down") or from rada (have dominion," here in the sense of "to tread"). If it means "to go down," the reference would be to entering the vat in order to squash the grapes. If it means "to tread," the verb would refer specifically to the action of those who walk over the grapes in order to press out their juice. The phrase "the grapes" is supplied in the translation for clarity.
14sn (3:13) The immediacy of judgment upon human wickedness is here likened to the urgency required for a harvest that has reached its pinnacle of development.
15tn (3:15) Heb "gather in."
16tn (3:16) Or "the sky." See the note on "sky" in 2:30.
17tn (3:16) Heb "sons."
18tn (3:17) Heb "strangers" or "foreigners." In context this refers to invasions by conquering armies. A literal translation like "strangers" could be misunderstood to mean that the city of Jerusalem will be closed to outsiders in that day.
19tn (3:18) Heb "and it will come about in that day."
20tn (3:18) Many English translations read "new wine" or "sweet wine," meaning unfermented wine, i.e., grape juice.
21tn (3:18) Or "seasonal streams."
22tn (3:18) Heb "house."
23tn (3:18) Heb "valley of Shittim."
sn (3:18) The exact location of the valley of acacia trees is uncertain. The Hebrew word Shittim refers to a place where the acacia trees grow, which would be a very arid and dry place. The acacia tree can survive in such locations, whereas most other trees require more advantageous conditions. Joel's point is that the stream that has been mentioned will proceed to the most dry and barren of locations in the vicinity of Jerusalem.
24tn (3:19) Heb "violence of the sons of Judah." The phrase "of the sons of Judah" is an objective genitive related to "violence." It refers to injustices committed against the Judeans, not violence that the Judeans themselves had committed against others.
25tc (3:21) The present translation reads weniqqamti ("I will avenge") rather than weniqqeti ("I will acquit") of the MT.